Urban mosquito distributions are modulated by socioeconomic status and environmental traits in the USA.

The distribution of mosquitoes and associated vector diseases (e.g., West Nile, dengue, and Zika viruses) is likely a function of environmental conditions in the landscape. Urban environments are highly heterogeneous in the amount of vegetation, standing water, and concrete structures covering the land at a given time, each having the capacity to influence mosquito abundance and disease transmission. Previous research suggests that socioeconomic status is correlated with the ecology of the landscape, with lower-income neighborhoods generally having more concrete structures and standing water via residential abandonment, garbage dumps, and inadequate sewage. Whether these socio-ecological factors affect mosquito distributions across urban environments in the United States (US) remains unclear. Here, we present a meta-analysis of 42 paired observations from 18 articles testing how socioeconomic status relates to overall mosquito burden in urban landscapes in the US. We also analyzed how with socio-ecological covariates (e.g., abandoned buildings, vegetation, education, and garbage containers) varied across socioeconomic status in the same mosquito studies. The meta-analysis revealed that lower-income neighborhoods (regions with median household incomes <$50,000 household -1 year -1 ) are exposed to 63% greater mosquito densities and mosquito-borne illnesses compared to higher-income neighborhoods (≥$50,000 household -1 year -1 ). One common species of urban mosquito (Aedes aegypti) showed the strongest relationship with socioeconomic status, with Ae. aegypti being 126% higher in low-income than high-income neighborhoods. We also found that certain socio-ecological covariates correlated with median household income. Garbage, trash, and plastic containers were found 67% higher in low-income neighborhoods, whereas high-income neighborhoods tended to have higher levels of education. Together, these results indicate that socio-ecological factors can lead to disproportionate impacts of mosquitoes on humans in urban landscapes. Thus, concerted efforts to manage mosquito populations in low-income urban neighborhoods are required to reduce mosquito burden for the communities most vulnerable to human disease.