Temporal Trends in Air Pollution Exposure across Socioeconomic Groups in The Netherlands.

Air pollution exposure has been linked to detrimental health outcomes. While cross-sectional studies have demonstrated socioeconomic disparities in air pollution exposure, longitudinal evidence on these disparities remains limited. The current study investigates trends in residential air pollution exposure across socioeconomic groups in the Netherlands from 2014 to 2019. Our dataset includes over 12.5 million individuals, aged 18 years and above, who resided in the Netherlands between 2014 and 2019, using Statistics Netherlands data. The address-level air pollution concentrations were estimated by dispersion models of the National Institute of Public Health and the Environment. We linked the exposure estimations of particulate matter < 10 or <2.5 μm (PM 10 , PM 2.5 ) and nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ) to household-level socioeconomic data. In highly urbanized areas, individuals from both the lowest and highest socioeconomic groups were exposed to higher air pollution concentrations. Individuals from the lowest socioeconomic group were disproportionally located in highly urbanized and more polluted areas. The air pollution concentrations of PM 10 , PM 2.5 , and NO 2 decreased between 2014 and 2019 for all the socioeconomic groups. The decrease in the annual average air pollution concentrations was the strongest for the lowest socioeconomic group, although differences in exposure between the socioeconomic groups remain. Further research is needed to define the health and equity implications.