Effect of Dual Pore Size Architecture on In Vitro Osteogenic Differentiation in Additively Manufactured Hierarchical Scaffolds.

The combination of macro- and microporosity is a potent manner of enhancing osteogenic potential, but the biological events leading to this increase in osteogenesis are not well understood. In this study, we investigated the effect of a dual pore size scaffold on the physical and biological properties, with the hypothesis that cell condensation is the determining factor for enhanced osteogenic differentiation. To this end, a hierarchical scaffold possessing a dual (large and small) pore size was fabricated by combining two additive manufacturing techniques: melt electrospinning writing (MEW) and fused deposition modeling (FDM). The scaffolds showed a mechanical stiffness of 23.2 ± 1.5 MPa similar to the FDM control scaffold, while the hybrid revealed an increased specific surface area of 1.4 ± 0.1 m2/g. The scaffold was cultured with primary human osteoblasts for 28 days, which showed enhanced cell adhesion and proliferation. The hierarchical structure was also beneficial for in vitro alkaline phosphate activity and mineralization and showed an increased expression of osteogenic protein and genes. Mesenchymal condensation markers related to osteoblastic differentiation (CDH2, RhoA, Rac1, and Cdc42) were upregulated in the hybrid construct, demonstrating that the MEW membrane provided an environment more suitable for the recapitulation of cell condensation, which in turn leads to higher osteogenic differentiation. In summary, this study demonstrated that the hierarchical scaffold developed in this paper leads to a significant improvement in the scaffold properties such as increased specific surface area, initial cell adhesion, cell proliferation, and in vitro osteogenesis.