Is there evidence of a causal link between childhood maltreatment and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder? A systematic review of prospective longitudinal studies using the Bradford-Hill criteria.

The high quality prospective longitudinal studies reviewed confirm the association between ADHD and CM, but present conflicting evidence about the direction of causality and mechanisms underpinning this association. To better understand the complex interplay between CM and ADHD, more studies using new research designs will be required that can partition effects by type of CM and account for bidirectional effects and other complexities.