Functionalized extracellular nanovesicles as advanced CRISPR delivery systems.

The clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeat (CRISPR) system, an emerging tool for genome editing, has garnered significant public interest for its potential in treating genetic diseases. Despite the rapid advancements in CRISPR technology, the progress in developing effective delivery strategies lags, impeding its clinical application. Extracellular nanovesicles (EVs), either in their endogenous forms or with engineered modifications, have emerged as a promising solution for CRISPR delivery. These EVs offer several advantages, including high biocompatibility, biological permeability, negligible immunogenicity, and straightforward production. Herein, we first summarize various types of functional EVs for CRISPR delivery, such as unmodified, modified, engineered virus-like particles (VLPs), and exosome-liposome hybrid vesicles, and examine their distinct intracellular pathways. Then, we outline the cutting-edge techniques for functionalizing extracellular vesicles, involving producer cell engineering, vesicle engineering, and virus-like particle engineering, emphasizing the diverse CRISPR delivery capabilities of these nanovesicles. Lastly, we address the current challenges and propose rational design strategies for their clinical translation, offering future perspectives on the development of functionalized EVs.