A systematic review of Leptospira in water and soil environments.

This work identified evidence of survival of Leptospira in the environment but major gaps remain about the survival of virulent species associated with human and animal diseases. Studies providing quantitative data on Leptospira in soil and water are a very recent trend, but must be interpreted with caution because of the uncertainty in the species identification. Several studies mentioned the presence of Leptospira in soils more frequently than in waters, supporting the hypothesis of the soil habitat and dispersion of Leptospira with re-suspended soil particles during heavy rain. In a near future, the growing use of high throughput sequencing will offer new opportunities to improve our understanding of the habitat of Leptospira in the environment. This better insight into the risk of leptospirosis will allow implementing efficient control measures and prevention for the human and animal populations exposed.