Formation of Aluminum-Fluoride Complexes Compromises Defluoridation Efficiency of Aluminum-Based Coagulation.

Aluminum-based coagulation has long been regarded as a reliable and cost-effective process for the defluoridation of industrial effluents. However, such a well-recognized viewpoint is challenged by the underestimation of fluoride levels in treated effluents. Herein, we developed a systematic protocol to distinguish different fluoride species, including free F - , exchangeable fluoride (EF), and nonexchangeable fluoride (NEF). We demonstrated that EF forms complexes with octahedral aluminum (AlO 6 ) on the surface of polyaluminum and can be exchanged with (1,2-cyclohexylenedinitrilo)-tetraacetic acid (CDTA). However, NEF is incorporated with tetrahedral aluminum (AlO 4 ) at the core of polyaluminum, as confirmed by 19 F/ 23 Al NMR and ESI-MS analysis, and cannot be exchanged with CDTA due to steric hindrance. Increasing the aluminum coagulant dosage effectively reduced free F - levels in photovoltaic and electroplating effluents to below 1 mg/L. However, the total fluoride content, with over half in the form of EF and NEF, was above 2 mg/L, exceeding the discharge limit regulated by many local governments of China. Furthermore, both EF and NEF can gradually transform to free F - in natural waters. Our findings indicate that aluminum-based coagulation inevitably accompanies the formation of substantial amounts of EF and NEF, compromising its defluoridation efficiency toward industrial effluents.