Nanoparticle-induced chemoresistance: the emerging modulatory effects of engineered nanomaterials on human intestinal cancer cell redox metabolic adaptation.

The widespread use of engineered nanomaterials (ENMs) in food products necessitates the understanding of their impact on the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Herein, we screened several representative food-borne comparator ENMs ( i.e. ZnO, SiO 2 and TiO 2 nanoparticles (NPs)) and report that human colon cancer cells can insidiously exploit ZnO NP-induced adaptive response to acquire resistance against several chemotherapeutic drugs. By employing a conditioning and challenge treatment regime, we demonstrate that repeated exposure to a non-toxic dose of ZnO NPs (20 μM) could dampen the efficacy of cisplatin, paclitaxel and doxorubicin by 10-50% in monolayer culture and 3D spheroids of human colon adenocarcinoma cells. Structure-activity relationship studies revealed a complex interplay between nanoparticle surface chemistry and cell type in determining the chemoresistance-inducing effect, with silica coated ZnO NPs having a negligible influence on the anticancer treatment. Mechanistically, we showed that the pro-survival paracrine signaling was potentiated and propagated by a subset of ZnO NP "stressed" (Zn 2+ +/ROS+) cells to the surrounding "bystander" (Zn 2+ +/ROS-) cells. Transcriptome profiling, bioinformatics analysis and siRNA gene knockdown experiments revealed the nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) as the key modulator of the ZnO NP-induced drug resistance. Our findings suggest that a ROS-inducing ENM can emerge as a nano-stressor, capable of regulating the chemosensitivity of colon cancer cells.