Anthropogenic mortality of large mammals and trends of conflict over two decades in Nepal.

Wildlife conservation in human-dominated landscapes faces increased challenges due to rising conflicts between humans and wildlife. We investigated the human and wildlife loss rates due to human-wildlife conflict between 2000 and 2020 in Nepal. We concentrated on Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ), greater one-horned rhino ( Rhinoceros unicornis ), tiger ( Panthera tigirs ), and leopard ( Panthera pardus ) mortality, as well as human mortality caused by these species. Over the 21-year period, we recorded 1139 cases of wildlife mortality and 887 cases of human mortality. Leopard mortality was the highest, followed by that of greater one-horned rhinos, tigers, and Asian elephants. Overall, the rate of wildlife mortality has been increasing over the years. Asian elephants were found to be more responsible for crop damage than greater one-horned rhinos, while leopards were found to be more responsible for livestock depredation than tigers. The generalized linear model indicated that the mortality of wildlife in the districts is best predicted by the additive effect of human mortality, the proportion of agricultural land, and the literacy rate of the districts. Retaliatory wildlife mortality was the most challenging issue for wildlife conservation, especially for the large mammals. Findings from this study are important for mitigation of human-wildlife conflicts, controlling retaliatory killing, and conserving these threatened large mammals.