Biodegradation of Graphene Oxide by Insects ( Tenebrio molitor Larvae): Role of the Gut Microbiome and Enzymes.

Biodegradation of graphene materials is critical for understanding their environmental process and fate. Thus, biodegradation and mineralization of graphene oxide (GO) by an insect (yellow mealworms, Tenebrio molitor larvae) were investigated. Twenty mealworms could eat up a piece of GO film (1.5 × 1.5 cm) in 15 days. The ingested GO film underwent degradation, and the residual GO sheets were observed in the frass. Raman imaging confirmed that the residual GO ( I D / I G , 1.16) was more defective than the pristine GO film ( I D / I G , 0.95). 14 C analysis showed that GO sheets were partially mineralized into CO 2 (0.26%) and assimilated into biomass compositions (e.g., lipid and protein) (0.36%). Gut microbes and extracellular enzymes in yellow mealworms played crucial roles in GO degradation, and the predominant gut microbes for GO biodegradation were identified as Enterobacteriaceae bacteria (e.g., Escherichia - Shigella sp.). Two biodegradation products belonging to hydroxylated or carboxylated aromatic compounds were formed with the assistance of electrons and hydroxyl radicals in mealworm guts. These findings are useful for better understanding the environmental and biological fate of graphene materials.