The Effects of Ozone on Visual Attraction Traits of Erodium paularense (Geraniaceae) Flowers: Modelled Perception by Insect Pollinators.

Ozone (O 3 ) effects on the visual attraction traits (color, perception and area) of petals are described for Erodium paularense , an endangered plant species. Plants were exposed to three O 3 treatments: charcoal-filtered air (CFA), ambient (NFA) and ambient + 40 nL L -1 O 3 (FU+) in open-top chambers. Changes in color were measured by spectral reflectance, from which the anthocyanin reflectance index (ARI) was calculated. Petal spectral reflectance was mapped onto color spaces of bees, flies and butterflies for studying color changes as perceived by different pollinator guilds. Ozone-induced increases in petal reflectance and a rise in ARI under NFA were observed. Ambient O 3 levels also induced a partial change in the color perception of flies, with the number of petals seen as blue increasing to 53% compared to only 24% in CFA. Butterflies also showed the ability to partially perceive petal color changes, differentiating some CFA petals from NFA and FU+ petals through changes in the excitation of the UV photoreceptor. Importantly, O 3 reduced petal area by 19.8 and 25% in NFA and FU+ relative to CFA, respectively. In sensitive species O 3 may affect visual attraction traits important for pollination, and spectral reflectance is proposed as a novel method for studying O 3 effects on flower color.