Biomarkers of human gut microbiota diversity and dysbiosis.

The association of gut microbiota dysbiosis with various human diseases is being substantiated with increasing evidence. Metabolites derived from both, microbiota and the human host play a central role in disease susceptibility and disease progression by extensively modulating host physiology and metabolism. Several of these metabolites have the potential to serve as diagnostic biomarkers for monitoring disease states in conjunction with intestinal microbiota dysbiosis. In this narrative review we evaluate the potential of trimethylamine-N-oxide, short-chain fatty acids, 3-indoxyl sulfate, p-cresyl sulfate, secondary bile acids, hippurate, human β-defensin-2, chromogranin A, secreted immunoglobulins and zonulin to serve as biomarkers for metabolite profiling and diagnostic suitability for dysbiosis and disease.