Refining antimicrobial photodynamic therapy: effect of charge distribution and central metal ion in fluorinated porphyrins on effective control of planktonic and biofilm bacterial forms.

Antibiotic resistance represents a pressing global health challenge, now acknowledged as a critical concern within the framework of One Health. Photodynamic inactivation of microorganisms (PDI) offers an attractive, non-invasive approach known for its flexibility, independence from microbial resistance patterns, broad-spectrum efficacy, and minimal risk of inducing resistance. Various photosensitizers, including porphyrin derivatives have been explored for pathogen eradication. In this context, we present the synthesis, spectroscopic and photophysical characteristics as well as antimicrobial properties of a palladium(II)-porphyrin derivative (PdF 2 POH), along with its zinc(II)- and free-base counterparts (ZnF 2 POH and F 2 POH, respectively). Our findings reveal that the palladium(II)-porphyrin complex can be classified as an excellent generator of reactive oxygen species (ROS), encompassing both singlet oxygen (Φ △  = 0.93) and oxygen-centered radicals. The ability of photosensitizers to generate ROS was assessed using a variety of direct (luminescence measurements) and indirect techniques, including specific fluorescent probes both in solution and in microorganisms during the PDI procedure. We investigated the PDI efficacy of F 2 POH, ZnF 2 POH, and PdF 2 POH against both Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria. All tested compounds proved high activity against Gram-positive species, with PdF 2 POH exhibiting superior efficacy, leading to up to a 6-log reduction in S. aureus viability. Notably, PdF 2 POH-mediated PDI displayed remarkable effectiveness against S. aureus biofilm, a challenging target due to its complex structure and increased resistance to conventional treatments. Furthermore, our results show that PDI with PdF 2 POH is more selective for bacterial than for mammalian cells, particularly at lower light doses (up to 5 J/cm 2 of blue light illumination). This enhanced efficacy of PdF 2 POH-mediated PDI as compared to ZnF 2 POH and F 2 POH can be attributed to more pronounced ROS generation by palladium derivative via both types of photochemical mechanisms (high yields of singlet oxygen generation as well as oxygen-centered radicals). Additionally, PDI proved effective in eliminating bacteria within S. aureus-infected human keratinocytes, inhibiting infection progression while preserving the viability and integrity of infected HaCaT cells. These findings underscore the potential of metalloporphyrins, particularly the Pd(II)-porphyrin complex, as promising photosensitizers for PDI in various bacterial infections, warranting further investigation in advanced infection models.