Over-the-Counter Drug Misuse and Dependence: Public Health Ethics' Foray into Fight against the Codeine Crisis.

Over-the-counter (OTC) drugs, such as codeine, are available as an OTC drug at common drugstores and major e-commerce platforms, despite their known propensity for causing psychological dependence and harm from overuse. Misuse of and dependence on over-the-counter drugs are serious public health issues. Possible measures include stricter regulation and control, as well as regulation of access to information and awareness activities, but their effectiveness is limited. Up-scheduling, in which OTC drugs are placed under prescription or full regulation, is expected to have a definite effect. However, up-scheduling poses public health ethical challenges. Up-scheduling restricts the freedom of consumers to purchase OTC drugs, and the economic right of manufacturers and sellers. Up-scheduling may also interfere with people's right to seek self-care through the proper use of OTC drugs. Limited up-scheduling with respect to age may be an effective way to implement up-scheduling while avoiding ethical issues. However, from a public health perspective, it is necessary to improve the information infrastructure so that prescription drug information can be shared electronically, and to strengthen measures to prevent mental health problems among young people that lead to OTC drug misuse, even after up-scheduling.