Antibiotic Resistance Profiles and ARG Detection from Isolated Bacteria in a Culture-Dependent Study at the Codfish Industry Level.

The antibiotic resistance phenomenon horizontally involves numerous bacteria cultured from fresh or processed seafood matrix microbiomes. In this study, the identified bacteria from food-producing processes and industrial environments were screened for phenotypic and genotypic resistance determinants. A total of 684 bacterial strains [537 from processed codfish ( Gadus morhua and Gadus macrocephalus ) products as salted and seasoned and soaked and 147 from environmental samples] were isolated. Antibiotic susceptibility tests showed resistance against tetracycline, oxacillin, and clindamycin in the Staphylococcus genus (both from food and environmental samples) and against beta-lactams (cefotaxime, carbapenems, etc.) and nitrofurans (nitrofurantoin) from E. coli and Salmonella enterica serovar. Enteritidis isolates. One-thousand and ten genetic determinants-tetracycline tet C (25.17%), tet K (21.06%), tet L (11.70%), clindamycin erm C (17.23%), erm B (7.60%), linezolid cfr (8.22%), optr A (3.62%), poxt A (2.05%), and oxacillin mec A (17.37%)-were amplified from Gram-positive resistant and phenotypically susceptible bacteria. Concerning Gram-negative bacteria, the beta-lactam-resistant genes ( bla TEM , bla CIT , bla CTX-M , bla IMP , bla KPC , bla OXA-48-like ) represented 57.30% of the amplified ARGs. This study found high antibiotic resistance genes in circulation in the fish food industry chain from the macro- to microenvironment. The obtained data confirmed the diffusion of the " antibiotic resistance phenomenon " and its repercussions on the One-health and food-producing systems.