Review of intra-articular local anaesthetic administration in horses: Clinical indications, cytotoxicity, and outcomes.

Equine practitioners frequently inject local anaesthetics (LA) intra-articularly in both diagnosis of lameness and for pain management intra- or post-operatively with synovial endoscopy. Recent reviews of the human and veterinary literature support the concept that chondrotoxicity of LA on joint tissues depends on the type of drug, dose administered, and duration of exposure. The purpose of this review is to summarise the current literature describing intra-articular local anaesthetic use, including both in vitro and in vivo studies, and to draw some comparisons to literature from other species where potential toxicity and duration of effect have been evaluated with the goal of advancing the field's understanding of intra-articular local anaesthetic use in horses, and indicating future directions for the field. The aggregate data available from all species, while generally sparse for horses, indicate that LA are rapidly cleared from the synovial fluid after injection, often within 30 min. In vitro data strongly suggest that lidocaine and bupivacaine are likely more chondrotoxic than other LA, although to what extent is still unknown, and cytotoxicity of LA may be mitigated through concurrent injection with HA, PRP, and drug combinations including nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories and opioids. The current body of in vitro research is not reflective of the in vivo environment, and further in vitro work, if performed, should focus on mimicking the native joint environment, utilising PK data and joint/injection volumes to replicate the native environment more accurately within the joint and the expected exposures to LA.